The Impact of Korean Tv Dramas on Taiwanese Tourism Demand

Tourism Economics, 2009, 15 (4), 867–873 Research note: The impact of Korean TV dramas on Taiwanese tourism demand for Korea HYUN JEONG KIM School of Hospitality Business Management, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-742, USA. E-mail: [email  protected] edu. MING-HSIANG CHEN Department of Finance, National Chung Cheng University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan, ROC. E-mail: [email  protected] edu. tw. HUNG-JEN SU Department of Management, National Chung Cheng University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan, ROC. E-mail: [email  protected] edu. tw. This study examines the effects of popular Korean TV dramas on Taiwanese outbound travel to Korea between 1997 and the end of 2005.The popularity of Korean TV dramas began with the drama Fireworks, first shown in Taiwan from July to September 2000. Based on that information, the data were divided into two subsamples: January 1997 to September 2000 and October 2000 to December 2005. The Chow tests revealed a significant structural change in the total number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea between the two sample periods. Additional analyses indicated that a significant structural change was attributable mainly to the increase in pleasure travel, further demonstrating the strong effects of Korean TV series in Taiwan.Empirical results support the concept of film-induced tourism. Keywords: TV drama; Korea; Taiwan; outbound travel; Chow tests Traditionally, South Korea has focused on exporting manufactured goods. However, recently, the country has become known for exporting entertainment products. In May 1994, the Korean Presidential Advisory Board on Science and Technology released its first report regarding the impact of digital technology on economic development. The report pointed out that the Hollywood film Jurassic Park generated revenue equivalent to foreign sales of 1. million Hyundai cars (Shim, 2002). The comparison between Hyundai cars and 868 TOURISM ECONOMICS Hollywood films drew the country’s attention to the imp ortance of media content to the national economy. Since then, the Korean government has declared the high value-added audiovisual industry as one of the national strategic industries for the next century. In 1995, the government enacted the Motion Picture Promotion Law, with incentives such as tax breaks to encourage corporations to invest in the film industry (Shim, 2002).Korean TV dramas did not travel much beyond the national border until the late 1990s. Along with the Korean government’s support for the film industry, Korean TV dramas began to be broadcast in Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe and Russia (Lin and Huang, 2006). The Taiwanese media coined the slogan ‘Korean Wave’ in 2001, in response to the phenomenal popularity of the Korean pop culture in Taiwan (Chang et al, 2005). Not only has Taiwan been engulfed by the ‘Korean Wave’, but also Japan, China, Singapore and Malaysia (Lin and Huang, 2006).The popularity of Korean TV dramas in T aiwan began with Fireworks, first aired in 2000. The programme was an enormous success and it was rerun several times over the years, thereby forming the foundation of the ‘Korean Wave’ in Taiwan (Sung, 2008). Since Fireworks, more than 100 Korean soap operas have been shown in Taiwan (Lin and Huang, 2006). The Korean TV programmes have led to a dramatic change in the negative image associated with Korea; for example, roughness, violence and a lack of cultural refinement (Sung, 2008).Taiwanese people are now more willing to purchase Korean consumer goods (Onishi, 2005), join an international trip to Korea (Onishi, 2005) or learn the Korean language (Sung, 2008). Lee (2005) argued that the popularity of Korean TV dramas and movies overseas could launch a second economic boom for South Korea, particularly benefiting the entertainment and tourism industries. Lee (2005) stated that according to the export statistics of South Korean TV dramas, Taiwan was a leading importer ( 24. 5%), followed by Japan (19%), China (18. 6%) and Hong Kong (3. %). Accordingly, this study tests the influence of the popularity of Korean TV series in Taiwan on the number of Taiwanese tourists travelling to Korea. Although previous studies have discussed the effect of films on tourism (Tooke and Baker, 1996; Riley et al, 1998), no formal statistical tests have been performed to examine the significant increase in visitation and there has been no focus on a specific overseas audience. Taiwanese tourism demand for Korea: from 1980 to 2005 Geographically, South Korea and Taiwan are very close to each other.After World War II, both countries perceived each other as political allies until the early 1990s. For 12 years (1980–1992), the number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea increased gradually from 76,995 to 302,184, with an average annual growth rate of 14. 59% (see Figure 1 for the monthly travel flow from Taiwan to Korea). However, in August 1992, Korea severed diplomatic t ies with Taiwan to pursue its relationship with China. In 1993, the travel flow collapsed dramatically, by almost 60%, after the end of the political relationship.The low Taiwanese demand for travel to Korea lasted about eight years (1993– 2000), with a negative annual growth rate of –8. 84%. Taiwanese tourism demand for Korea Total outbound departures 800,000 700,000 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 1 869 1 2 3 4 Taiwanese tourist arrivals to Korea 50,000 1 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 2 3 4 Figure 1. Monthly time series of total Taiwanese outbound departures (all countries) and total Taiwanese tourist arrivals in Korea: 1/1980–12/2005.Note: Dotted line 1 – end of political relationship between Korea and Taiwan (8/1992). Dotted line 2 – earthquake of 21 September (9/1999). Dotted line 3 – start of the popularity of Korean TV series in Taiwan (10/ 2000). Dotted line 4 – outbreak of SARS in Taiwan (4/2003). Starting in 2001, the number of Taiwanese tourists travelling to Korea increased rapidly, although political ties were not renewed. Experts attribute the sudden travel flow to Korea to the unprecedented popularity of Korean TV dramas in Taiwan (Onishi, 2005). The growth rate of the travel flow to Korea (28. 9%) in a short period is impressive: 108,831 in 2000 to 368,205 in 2005. One sharp decrease occurred in 2003 because of the negative effect of the SARS outbreak in Taiwan on Taiwanese overseas departures. However, the number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea rebounded quickly. In 2004, to accommodate the strong tourism demand for Korea, Taiwan signed a new aviation agreement with 870 PLEASURE 40,000 TOURISM ECONOMICS BUSINESS 300 250 30,000 200 20,000 150 100 10,000 50 0 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 0 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 OFFICIAL 3,000 2,500 2,000 60 1,500 40 1,000 500 0 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05OTHER 100 80 20 0 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 Figure 2. Monthly time-series data of Taiwanese tourist arrivals in Korea: different purposes for visitation (1/1997–12/2005). Korea to resume flights between the two countries, ending a 12-year suspension on regular flight services (Government Information Office, 2005). Data, hypotheses and tests of structural changes Figure 1 presents monthly time-series data of total Taiwanese overseas travel (all countries) from January 1980 to December 2005; data were obtained from various issues of the annual report on tourism by the Taiwan Tourism Bureau.Figure 1 also plots the monthly data of total Taiwanese outbound travel to Korea over the same period. Data were collected from the Korea National Tourism Organization’s (KNTO) Taipei office. Figure 2 illustrates monthly data of Taiwanese arrivals to Korea in terms of purposes for visiting: pleasure, business, official and other. Data from the KNTO Taipei office were available for only nine years, f rom January 1997 to December 2005. KNTO (2006) reported that in 2005 pleasure trips accounted for 94. 1% of the total Taiwanese travel to Korea; in the same year, business, official and other categories accounted for only 0. 23%, 4. 86% and 0. 10%, respectively. To examine whether the popularity of Korean TV dramas in Taiwan has a Taiwanese tourism demand for Korea 871 significant impact on Taiwanese travel to Korea, we hypothesize that there is a structural change in the total number of Taiwanese trips to Korea before and after October 2000. This date is selected because the first popular Korean TV drama, Fireworks, ended in September 2000. To investigate the ffects of the popularity of Korean TV dramas further, we test if there is a structural change in total outbound departures (all countries) before and after October 2000. We expect no structural change in total outbound departures if the significant increase in Taiwanese overseas travel is restricted to South Korea, due to popu lar Korean TV dramas rather than the overall growth of outbound travel in Taiwan. In addition, we apply the same hypothesis to the different purposes for visitation (business, pleasure, official and other) to see which type of visit is affected more significantly by the popularity of Korean TV series.Accordingly, the following hypotheses are tested: †¢ Hypothesis 1: There is a structural change in the total number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea before and after October 2000. †¢ Hypothesis 2: There is a structural change in the total Taiwanese outbound departures before and after October 2000. †¢ Hypothesis 3: There is a structural change in the number of Taiwanese pleasure trips to Korea before and after October 2000. †¢ Hypothesis 4: There is a structural change in the number of Taiwanese business trips to Korea before and after October 2000. Hypothesis 5: There is a structural change in the number of Taiwanese official trips to Korea before and after October 20 00. †¢ Hypothesis 6: There is a structural change in the number of trips of the other category before and after October 2000. We used two Chow tests, namely the Chow breakpoint test and the Chow forecast test, to ensure the consistency of structural break test results. To perform the tests, the full sample period is divided into two subsamples: January 1997 to September 2000 and October 2000 to December 2005.The results of the Chow breakpoint test (Table 1) show a significant structural change in the total number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea, but no structural change in the total Taiwanese outbound departures before and after October 2000. In addition, structural changes are detected in pleasure travel and official travel, but no significant structural change is found in business and other travel. In conclusion, the Chow breakpoint test results support Hypotheses 1, 3 and 5. Table 1. Tests of a structural change in the number of Taiwanese visitors: before and after the popula rity of Korean TV series.Tourist arrivals Total outbound departures Total Pleasure Taiwanese visitors to Korea Yes Yes Yes Yes Business Official Other Chow breakpoint test Chow forecast test No No No No Yes No No Yes 872 TOURISM ECONOMICS The Chow forecast test produced similar results, with a minor difference in the results of travel purposes (Table 1). Structural changes are detected in the total number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea, pleasure travel and other travel; no structural changes are found in the total Taiwanese outbound departures and business and official travel before and after 2000.Therefore, Hypotheses 1, 3 and 6 are supported. Discussion and conclusion This study conducts tests of structure changes to examine the effects of popular Korean TV dramas on Taiwanese outbound travel to Korea from January 1997 to December 2005. The two Chow tests demonstrate a structural change in the total number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea between two periods: before and after Octobe r 2000 (before and after the showing of the Korean drama Fireworks).In addition, the fact that there is no structural change in the total number of Taiwanese outbound departures suggests that the significant increase in travel flow to Korea is an independent phenomenon, not associated with the overall growth of outbound departures in Taiwan. Chow tests, using travel purposes, do not show that business travel has a significant structural change, indicating that the number of Taiwanese travellers coming to Korea for business is not changed significantly before nd after 2000. For official and other travel, the results of two Chow tests are mixed; therefore, it may be difficult to support the existence of a structural change. Among four groups, only pleasure travel consistently shows a structural change through both Chow tests. This indicates that pleasure travel most likely drives a structural change in the total number of Taiwanese visitors to Korea before and after 2000, thereby furt her demonstrating the significant effects of popular Korean dramas in Taiwan.If Korean TV dramas, staged in Taiwan over the past few years, were linked to travel motivation, the effect would be seen on pleasure trips rather than other types. Overall, this study presents strong evidence regarding the effects of film on overseas travellers and supports the concept of film-induced tourism (Tooke and Baker, 1996; Kim et al, 2007). After diplomatic ties ended in 1992, South Korea was perceived by the Taiwanese as a violent country and one that overnight traded loyalty and faith for economic gains (Choe, 2001).Although this study does not measure the image/perception change, it is reasonable to assume that the popular Korean TV dramas have had a positive influence on the image of Korea, thereby leading to more Taiwanese pleasure trips to Korea. This study, therefore, confirms indirectly that movies, specifically TV dramas, can be an effective vehicle to change the perception of a certain destination country and further ease political conflict between two countries by stimulating social/pleasure travel flow (Kim et al, 2007).The film-induced tourism of this study is therefore in line with earlier notions that tourism is likely to act as a positive force to promote peace by reducing tension and suspicion (D’Amore, 1988). The great success of Korean TV dramas in neighbouring Asian countries such as Taiwan seems to offer an opportunity to consider countries further away than Asia. Due to globalization, outbound travels from the West to the East (and vice versa) are increasing constantly. The West may learn Asian culture, Taiwanese tourism demand for Korea 873 specifically Korean culture, through Korean dramas or movies.Therefore, the Korean government should develop the deeper understanding resulting from film-induced tourism to promote South Korea as a more appealing travel destination in the world. Future research directions The analysis of the present study is at a general level, breaking down Taiwanese arrivals only by total and purpose of visit. It is useful to identify the detailed profile of Taiwanese visitors drawn by popular Korean TV dramas. Hence, it is recommended that future research of this kind includes demographic variables such as gender, age and occupation.In addition to Taiwanese tourists, similar analyses should be performed using visitors from other countries/places where Korean TV programmes are broadcast. Currently, the film-induced tourism demand for Korea is being generated from East and South East Asian countries where the ‘Korean Wave’ exists strongly. In Asia, each country has its unique cultural character and economic power. Some demographic or behavioural differences may be found among these Asian visitors to Korea. References Chang, H. , Chen, Y. , and Liu, Z. 2005), ‘Korean Wave swept through and took away a large chunk of money’, China Times, 12 May 12 (http://news. chinatimes. com/ Chinatimes, accessed 12 October 2007). Choe, Y. (2001), ‘Asia dreaming of Korea’s pop singers and actors’, Korea Herald, 11 September (http://kn. koreaherald. co. kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2001/09/11/200109110034. asp, accessed 13 October 2007). D’Amore, L. (1988), ‘Tourism: a vital force for peace’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 15, pp 269– 270. Government Information Office (2005), Foreign Relations, Government Information Office, Taipei, Taiwan. Kim, S. S. , Agrusa, J. Lee, H. , and Chon, K. (2007), ‘Effects of Korean television dramas on the flow of Japanese tourists’, Tourism Management, Vol 28, pp 1340–1353. KNTO (Korea National Tourism Organization) (2006), ‘Overview of Korea’s tourism industry’ (http://www. knto. or. kr, accessed 13 October 2007). Lee, D. (2005), ‘Winter sonata drama fever’, UNIORB: Asian Trend: Japan/South Korea (http:// uniorb. com/ATREND/Japanwatch/wsdramafev er. htm, accessed 12 October 2007). Lin, Y. , and Huang, J. (2006), ‘Marketing of South Korean tourism using TV mini series’, Business Review, Vol 5, pp 61–65. Onishi, N. 2005), ‘Roll over, Godzilla: Korea rules’, The New York Times, 28 June. Riley, R. , Baker, D. , and Van Doren, C. S. (1998), ‘Movie induced tourism’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 23, pp 919–935. Shim, D. (2002), ‘South Korean media industry in the 1990s and the economic crisis’, Prometheus, Vol 20, pp 337–350. Sung, S. (2008), ‘The high tide of the Korean Wave III: why do Asian fans prefer Korean pop culture? ’ Korea Herald, 4 February. Tooke, N. , and Baker, M. (1996), ‘Seeing is believing: the effect of film on visitor numbers to screened locations’, Tourism Management, Vol 17, pp 87–94.

Gigantism and Dwarfism Essay

When the pituitary gland overproduces the growth hormone a rare disorder known as Acromegaly or gigantism may develop. The overproduction of the growth hormone most of the time is caused by a tumor. Swelling and thickening of the skin, growth and enlargement of the bones, especially if the hands, feet and face are caused by excess growth hormone. Acromegaly or gigantism is a rare hormonal disorder than can develop when your pituitary gland overproduces the growth hormone. Most of the time this overproduction of the growth hormone is caused by a tumor. The excess growth hormone causes swelling, thickening of the skin, tissue growth and enlargement of the bones, especially in the hands, feet and face. The overproduction of the growth hormone in children can lead to a condition known as gigantism. This may lead to an abnormal increase in the height and bone growth. Overproduction of the growth hormone in middle aged adults causes acromegaly. The treatment of choice in pituitary tumors is surgery. When surgery cannot be performed or if the entire tumor cannot be removed, then the treatment of choice is medications. Somatostatin analogues (SSA) are synthetic versions of the hormone in the brain somatostatin. Two SSA’s are octreotide (Sandostatin, Sandostatin LAR) and lanreotide (Somatuline Depot). Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of the growth hormone. SSA’s can decrease the growth hormone levels by blocking the excess production in the pituitary gland. Common side effects are pain at the injection site, intestinal cramping, diarrhea and gallbladder problems. Growth hormone receptor antagonists (GHRAs). The medication pegvisomant (Somavert) blocks the effect of growth hormone on the body tissues. It is administered daily by a subcutaneous injection. This medication can normalize growth hormone levels and relieve symptoms in most people affected by acromegaly. Some common side effects are headache, nausea, diarrhea and fatigue. Dopamine agonists such as Cabergoline (Dostinex) and bromocroptine (Parlodel) are given to reduce production of the growth hormone and to shrink tumors. Both of these medications can be taken orally in pill form. They are not as effective as the SSA’s and GHRA’s. Sometimes doctors will prescribe a combination of Dopamine agonists with somatostatin analogues for treatment. Side effects that are common include headache, nausea and intestinal cramping. Pegvisomant has been used to treat acromegaly, or gigantism. It is a form of a growth hormone antagonist known as B2036. This growth hormone has increased disposition in one binding site and a lowered disposition in the second binding site. It has been shown that this molecule still enables reaction of the growth hormone receptor at the cell surface, but does not allow the necessary conformational changes. A growth hormone deficiency may result in a condition known as dwarfism. Dwarfism can be defined as a short height, that is the result of a genetic or medical condition. Adults with dwarfism are usually less than four feet ten inches tall. Treatments for conditions relating to dwarfism do not increase height, but may lessen complications. Surgery is one treatment option for dwarfism. Some of the common procedures that are done surgically are to insert metal staples into the ends of long bones into the growth plate in order to correct the direction that the bones are growing. They can divide a limb bone, straighten it and insert a metal plate to hold it in place. They may insert rods or staples to correct the shape of the spine. They may increase the size of the opening in the vertebrae to alleviate pressure on the spinal cord. Lengthening of the limbs is a treatment choice of people with dwarfism. During this procedure, the surgeon divides a long bone into two or more sections, slightly separates the sections and braces the bone and the limb with external metal â€Å"scaffolding†. Pins and screws on this frame are periodically adjusted to keep the tension between the sections, enabling the bone to grow back together gradually into a complete and longer bone. Dwarfism is treated with injections of a synthetic version of the growth hormone. Children receive injections daily for several years until they reach a maximum adult height. Often this is the average adult range for their family. People with dwarfism may encounter discrimination. Family support, social networks, advocacy groups and adaptive products enable most people with dwarfism to address challenges in educational, work and social settings. Growth hormone deficiency is treated with injections of a synthetic version of the hormone. In most cases, children receive daily injections for several years until they reach a maximum adult height — often within the average adult range for their family. Treatment may continue throughout adolescence and early adulthood to ensure adult maturation, such as appropriate gain in muscle or fat. The treatment may be supplemented with other related hormones if they are also deficient. Treatment for girls with Turner syndrome also requires estrogen and related hormone therapy in order for them to begin puberty and achieve adult sexual development. Estrogen replacement therapy usually continues throughout life until a woman reaches the average age of menopaus

Coun 521 Psychological Report - 1996 Words

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The Legislative Branch free essay sample

The Legislative Process A. The first step in the legislative process is the introduction of a bill to Congress. B. A bill must pass through both houses of Congress before it goes to the President for consideration. III. Powers Of Congress A. All legislative powers in the government are controlled by Congress; making new laws or changing existing laws. B. The powers of Congress fall into three categories: special, implied, and expressed. Our Government: The Legislative Branch What is the Legislative Branch? Article I of the Constitution talks about the Legislative Branch. The Legislative Branch is the branch of the federal and state governments empowered to make the laws that are the enforced by the executive branch and interpreted by the judicial branch. The Legislative Branch consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate which forms U. S. Congress. If a states population increases, that means the number of representatives increases also. We will write a custom essay sample on The Legislative Branch or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There were 59 members at the first session of the House of Representatives. Today the House of Representatives consists of 435 members divided among the 50 states. Members of this house are elected every two years and must be at least 25 years of age. Also they must be a U. S citizen for at least seven years. The House has quite a few powers such as initiating revenue bills, and electing the President in an electoral tie. Now the Senate consists of 100 senators, 2 for every state. To become a senator, you must be at least 30 years old, a U. S citizen for at least nine years, and resides in the state that you represent. Senators are elected to six year terms by the people. Only the Senate can approve or reject treaties and presidential nominations for government offices. Senators terms are spread over a period of time so about one third of the Senate is up for reelection every two years. The vice president may cast the decisive vote in an event of a tie in the Senate because he serves as President of the Senate. In order to pass a law and send it to the President for his signature, the House of Representatives and the Senate must both agree on the law. If the President vetoes a law, they may overrule his veto by passing that law again in each chamber with at least two thirds of each body voting in favor. The Legislative Process The Legislative Process officially begins with a proposal in one of four forms: Bill, Joint Resolution, Concurrent Resolutions, and Simple Resolutions. But bills are the most common so I’m going to talk about the bill. The first step in the legislative process is the introduction of a bill. Members of the House of Representatives and the Senate both come up with a bill for consideration by the Congress. The President, head of a Federal agency, or a member of a cabinet can also propose legislation. When a bill is introduced, the title of the bill goes in the House Journal and printed into the Congressional Record. The clerk assigns the bill a legislative number and the Speaker of the House assigns the bill to the appropriate committee. Next, the bill is debated on the floor and then sent to the committee. Once the bill is revised, it is brought before the House of Representatives and Senate for consent again. The bill may be referred to a conference committee committee composed of both the House and Senate to settle differences in similar bills. Committee rejects the bills by not acting on them. The bill is then brought before both the House of Representatives and Senate for approval. Members of them both vote on the final version of the bill. If the bill is approved by the House and Senate, it is sent to the President. When the President receives the bill, he may sign, veto, or pocket veto the bill. If he signs it, the bill becomes a law. If he vetoes it, it goes back to Congress for redrafting or Congress can override the veto with two-thirds majority vote in both chambers. If the President does not return the bill to Congress with his disagreements within 10 days or so, the bill can automatically become a law. If Congress adjourns before the 10 day period, the bill is vetoed. And if Congress wants to pass this legislation, they must begin an entire new process. Once the bill is signed by the President, the laws are given public law numbers and copied in printed form as slip laws. These Public Laws are then bound into the Statues of Large. In each two-year session, thousands of bills come before Congress. Almost twelve thousand bills were introduced in Congress in one recent session. Less than five hundred were enacted into law. Powers of Congress Congress is the only part in the government that can make new laws or change existing ones. The President may veto bills Congress passes, but Congress may override a veto by two-thirds a vote in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress is also empowered to pass laws deemed â€Å"necessary and proper† for the carrying out of powers given to any part of the government. Powers granted to Congress fall into three categories: implied, expressed, and special. Implied Powers are powers not listed in the Constitution. They come from and depend on expressed powers of the government. The basis for implied powers comes from the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution, Article 1, Section 8. Another name for implied powers is called the elastic clause because it stretches the power of the government. Implied powers have helped the government enhance its authority to meet the many problems and situations that the Framers unseen. Expressed Powers are those powers explicitly named in the Constitution. They grant the legislative branch a large amount of authority over American national policy, both domestic and foreign. The Constitution states that the Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, imposts, duties, excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all imposts, duties, and excises shall be uniformed throughout the United States (Brady). There are a total of 27 expressed powers listed in the Constitution. Congress retains a number of special powers. It can act as a judicial body to impeach and try a president or other civil officer for misconduct. For example, the House of Representatives impeaches the official and Senate does a trial. Congress is also empowered to create and use administrative agencies and boards, such as the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, to determine facts and to enforce its legislative policies and enactments. Other than that, the Constitution vests each house of Congress with different powers as well.   References: Collins, Philip R. Power of Congressional Committees of Investigation to Obtain Information from the Executive Branch: The Argument for the Legislative Branch. Geo. lj 39 (1950): 563. Edin, Per-Anders, and Henry Ohlsson. Political determinants of budget deficits: Coalition effects versus minority effects. European Economic Review 35.8 (1991): 1597-1603. Evans, C. Lawrence. Politics of Congressional Reform. The Legislative Branch (2005): 490-524. Cohen, Julius. Judicial Legisputation and the Dimensions of Legislative Meaning. Ind. LJ 36 (1960): 414. De Haan, Jakob, Jan-Egbert Sturm, and Geert Beekhuis. The weak government thesis: Some new evidence. Public Choice 101.3 (1999): 163-176. Schickler, Eric. Institutional Development of Congress. The Legislative Branch (2005): 35-62.

Sniffy the Virtual Rat

Introduction Scholars dealing with human and animal behavior have come up with different theories to explain how behavior is acquired or how it becomes extinct. Such scholars include BF Skinner, who advanced operant conditioning theory and Ivan Pavlov, who advanced classical conditioning theory. In this paper, classical and operant conditioning experiments shall be designed. The significance of the experiments and how they relate to human behavior and thinking shall be explained.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sniffy the Virtual Rat specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Classical conditioning This is a behavioral learning theory advanced by Ivan Pavlov. In classical conditioning, learning takes place as a result of pairing a natural stimulus together with an environmental stimulus (Hall, 1998). In order for learning to take place, a neutral stimulus is placed before a natural stimulus. According to Cherry (2 012), behavior is learnt through association of the two stimuli. A visit to the dentist experiment Miss Y has cavities on most of her teeth. It is not the first time for her to have such a problem. In the past, she has been to the dentist and had some of the teeth with cavities extracted. The first time, she found a female doctor who extracted the tooth but she felt no pain. The second time, she found a male dentist who extracted the decayed tooth. However, the experience was not the same as the one she had during her first extraction. The male dentist extracted the tooth in a way that caused her a lot of pain. During the second time when she felt a lot of pain, Miss Y noted some of the characteristics of the dentist who performed the operation. The male dentist was wearing a white apron, had spectacles on and was from a different racial group (race A). During her subsequent visit to the dentist to have another tooth extracted, Miss Y finds another dentist that she has never met. Ho wever, the dentist is a man, wearing a white apron, with spectacles on and from race A. Before even explaining her problem to this dentist, Miss Y starts shaking due to fear. She starts feeling a lot of pain on her tooth that has not been aching while she was coming to the dentist. Miss Y is behaving in this manner because she has learnt to associate pain during teeth extraction with male dentist of a certain race. Miss Y decides to check another dentist to extract the tooth. Her next stop lands her to a lady dentist. Miss Y is now relaxed and ready to go through the process of extraction. She associates the experience is expecting to have with the past painless procedure that she underwent when the extraction was done by a lady. For the rest of the times that she visits a dentist, Miss Y requests to have a lady dentist work on her. Consequently, she claims that the extraction is always painless.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After Miss Y has had her dental problems dealt with, she does not feel the need to continue visiting the dentist as regularly as she did. However, whenever she goes to the hospital and finds a male doctor from race A, she is gripped by intense fear and starts feeling pain in her body. On the contrary, whenever she goes to the hospital and finds a lady doctor, she is more relaxed and less fearful. She says that she feels little or no pain at all when she is treated by a lady doctor. Miss Y is conditioned that all male doctors from race A inflict pain upon their patient during treatment. On the other hand, all female doctors treat their patients with less pain. Therefore, whenever Miss Y sees a male doctor from race A, even when she does not need his services, she is filled with fear. Baby and mother experiment Another example of classical conditioning can be illustrated through a mother’s relationship with her young child. When the child is with the mother, it is naturally quiet and at times jovial. However, when the mother carries her handbag and is about to leave for work, the baby starts to cry. Every time the baby sees the mother carry her handbag, it starts to cry because it is aware that the mother is about to leave. This happens after the mother repeatedly leaves for work whenever she carries her handbag. The baby therefore associates the handbag with being left behind by the mother. After continuously pairing the handbag with the mother’s departure, the baby starts to cry whenever she sees a handbag, even when the mother is not leaving. The mother in this case is the neutral stimulus, leaving the baby behind is the unconditioned stimulus, crying the unconditioned response, the mother the conditioned stimulus and crying the conditioned response. The baby’s association of the handbag with being left behind results to generalization. In this case, the baby cries whenever the mother carries anything else that looks like a bag, even when she is not leaving. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning was first proposed by Burrhus Frederic Skinner commonly known as BF Skinner (Mcleod, 2007). Skinner drew a lot from Thorndike’s work. The most important components of operant conditioning are reinforcement, rewards and punishment. If one reinforces a certain behavior, there is likelihood for the behavior to be exhibited again. However, if behavior is not reinforced, it will most probably be weakened and eventually become extinct. Reinforcement Positive reinforcement can be demonstrated through the use of a hungry dog placed in a special box. The box has a lever that is strategically placed at the side. The rat is able to move freely inside the box. However, during some of its movement, the rat accidentally steps on the lever at the side of the box. When this happens, the rat notices a food pellet near the lever it has stepped on. The rat learns that pressing t he lever is rewarded by provision of food.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sniffy the Virtual Rat specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, the rat continues pressing the lever as many times as possible and the outcome is still the same. In this case, the behavior of pressing the lever is reinforced because it results to something desirable. Therefore, the rat continues to press the lever every time it needs something to eat. This is an example of positive reinforcement, which strengthens a given behavior and increases its chance of recurrence. Behavior is reinforced through rewarding one’s behavior with a desirable consequence. The behavior is likely to be repeated in future if a desirable consequence is provided. Negative reinforcement According to Mcleod (2007), another way of strengthening behavior is the use of negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is applicable to the rat in the box experiment that we used for positive reinforcement. To introduce negative reinforcement, one would expose the rat to something that is not pleasant, for example an electric current. The lever should be set such that the electric current switches off immediately it is pressed by the rat. Therefore, the rat would learn that pressing the lever provided a way of escape from the unpleasant electric current that it is subjected to. Every time the electric current is switched on in the box, the rat will have a tendency to move to where the lever is and press it in order to escape the unpleasant conditions in the box. The action is repeated over and over again because the rat has learnt how to escape the discomfort caused by the electric current. Punishment Punishment is meant to cause a response to be weak or to make it extinct as opposed to reinforcement that is meant to increase the probability of occurrence of a behavior. There are two ways that can be used to issue out punishment. The first involves application of an unpleasant stimulus after something wrong has been done. The other one is denial of a rewarding stimulus whenever an undesired behavior is exhibited. Punishment is very similar to negative reinforcement. This type of conditioning can be used to encourage positive behavior in both animals and human beings. It can also be used to discourage negative behavior in humans and animals. Behavior learnt through operant conditioning is easily stopped when the consequences that were encouraging its occurrence are withdrawn. This is what is called extinction. These experiments enhance the classical conditioning theory advanced by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning advanced by Burrhus Frederic Skinner. They show that some behavior that human beings exhibit have been acquired through association of a natural stimulus with the environment as in classical conditioning.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Other behaviors are become permanent or extinct due to positive or negative reinforcement and punishment, as proposed by operant conditioning theory. The theories are applicable in day to day life in both humans and animals. Conclusion The experiments support the two theories of behavior acquisition namely: classical and operant conditioning. The animal experiments conducted by BF Skinner and Ivan Pavlov relate very closely to human thinking and behavior. Reference List Cherry, K. (2012). The Little Albert Experiment: A Closer Look at the Famous Case of Little Albert. New York: About.com. Web. Hall, R. (1998). Classical Conditioning. Web. Mcleod, S. (2007). Skinner – Operant Conditioning. London: Psychology Press. Web. This research paper on Sniffy the Virtual Rat was written and submitted by user Bryant B. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.